Anatomy

Anatomy is the branch of biology that studies the internal and external structure of organisms and their parts. Its name comes from the Greek ἀνατομή (anatomē), "dissection", formed from ana ("up") and temnein ("to cut").解剖学（Anatomy）是研究生物体及其各部分内外结构的生物学分支，名称出自希腊语（ἀνατομή，转写 anatomē，意为「切开」），由（ana，向上）与（temnein，切割）构成。

Its range runs from structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye down to cells and organelles, and it is bound to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology and phylogeny, the processes that generate anatomical structure over short and long timescales.研究范围从肉眼足以分辨的结构一直下探到细胞与细胞器，并与胚胎学、比较解剖学、演化生物学和系统发育学相连，后者正是解剖结构在短期与长期尺度上生成的机制。

Human anatomy is one of the basic sciences of medicine and is usually taught alongside physiology, and since the 1970s sectional imaging and digital cadaver datasets have added a radiological layer to a discipline that once rested on the dissecting table alone.人体解剖学是医学的基础学科之一，通常与生理学同时开设；20 世纪 70 年代以来，断层影像与数字化尸体数据集为这门原本只依靠解剖台的学科补上了影像学一层。

Definition and scope

• The Greek word first named the act of cutting a body open and only later came to mean the knowledge of structure that dissection yielded, a shift preserved in the Latin anatomia and in medieval translations of Galen.这一希腊词最初指把尸体切开的动作，后来才用来指解剖所得的结构知识；拉丁语（anatomia）与中世纪对盖伦著作的转译都保留了这次词义转移。

• Anatomy is distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which treat function and the underlying chemistry, so an anatomist describes the shape, size, position, blood supply and innervation of the liver while a physiologist asks how that organ makes bile and regulates metabolism.解剖学与生理学、生物化学分工明确，后两者研究功能与其中的化学过程；解剖学家描述肝脏的形态、大小、位置、血液供应与神经支配，生理学家关心的是胆汁如何生成、肝脏怎样参与代谢调节。

• Beyond position, the discipline records the materials a part is built from and its relations to neighbouring structures, and it supplies the vocabulary that physiology, surgery, internal medicine and pathology share.除位置之外，这门学科还记录各部分的构成材料及其与邻近结构的关系，并为生理学、外科学、内科学与病理学提供共用的术语。

• Scale splits the field into gross anatomy, where structures are large enough to be seen unaided, and microscopic anatomy, which resolves tissues and cells and, under the electron microscope, the organelles inside them.尺度把学科分成两半，大体解剖学研究肉眼足以分辨的结构，显微解剖学则解析组织与细胞，在电子显微镜下还能看到细胞器。

• Approach splits it again into regional anatomy, which maps every structure inside one region such as the abdomen, and systemic anatomy, which follows one system such as the digestive tract through the whole body.叙述方式再分出局部解剖学与系统解剖学，前者梳理腹部这类单一区域内的全部结构，后者沿消化系统这类单一系统贯穿全身。

• Clinical imaging added a third axis, sectional anatomy, which describes structures in the planes that computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging display and is a separate subject in several curricula.临床影像带来第三条轴线，断层解剖学按计算机断层成像与磁共振成像所显示的层面描述结构，在若干教学体系中独立成课。

• The word is normally taken to mean human anatomy, while zootomy covers the rest of the animal kingdom, and plant anatomy, whose tissues differ from those of animals, is a separate discipline.这个词通常默认指人体解剖学，动物解剖学覆盖其他动物，植物解剖学因组织性质与动物不同而另立一科。

Branches

• Surface anatomy reads palpable and visible landmarks to infer where deeper structures lie, the reasoning behind inspection, palpation and percussion in physical examination.表面解剖学依靠可触及与可见的体表标志推断深层结构的位置，体格检查中的视诊、触诊与叩诊都建立在它之上。

• Microscopic anatomy divides into histology, the study of tissues, and cytology, the study of cells, a split that follows from the cell theory Schleiden and Schwann put forward in 1839.显微解剖学分为研究组织的组织学与研究细胞的细胞学，这一分工直接来自施莱登与施旺 1839 年提出的细胞学说。

• Developmental anatomy tracks a structure through the embryonic period, and comparative anatomy sets the same structure against its counterparts in other species, which is how anatomy connects to embryology and to evolutionary biology.发育解剖学追踪结构在胚胎期的形成过程，比较解剖学把同一结构放到其他物种的对应形态中考察，解剖学由此接通胚胎学与演化生物学。

• Applied branches follow clinical use. Surgical anatomy maps the layers an operation crosses, radiological anatomy matches structures to imaging planes, and artistic anatomy codifies body proportions for drawing and sculpture.应用分支随临床需要生长，外科解剖学标出手术要穿过的层次，影像解剖学把结构与成像层面对应起来，艺术解剖学则为绘画与雕塑整理人体比例。

• Plant anatomy separated from plant morphology around the middle of the twentieth century, when the internal structure of plants became a research field of its own with its own microtechnique.植物解剖学在 20 世纪中期与植物形态学分开，植物内部结构自此成为有独立显微技术的研究领域。

Methods and techniques

• Dissection remains the reference method, since a scalpel exposes fascial planes and the relations between structures in a way that no image reproduces, though the supply of bodies has been regulated in Britain since the Anatomy Act of 1832.解剖仍是基准方法，手术刀揭示的筋膜层与结构间关系是任何影像都无法复现的，而尸体的来源在英国自 1832 年《解剖法》起就受法律管束。^[1]

• Endoscopy reaches internal surfaces through a small incision, and angiography, by X-ray or by magnetic resonance, opacifies vessels that dissection would destroy.内窥镜经小切口抵达体腔内表面，血管造影借助 X 线或磁共振使血管显影，而这些血管在解剖中往往被破坏。

• Histology depends on the microtome, which cuts sections thin enough to transmit light, and on dyes that separate tissue types by contrast rather than by shape.组织学依赖切片机切出足以透光的薄片，也依赖染料，靠染色反差而不是形状来区分组织类型。

• Electron microscopy, built on the work of Knoll and Ruska in the early 1930s, pushed resolution past the light microscope and made membranes and organelles visible.电子显微镜建立在 Knoll 与 Ruska 于 20 世纪 30 年代初完成的工作之上，分辨率突破光学显微镜的极限，膜与细胞器由此可见。

• X-ray diffraction of proteins and nucleic acids in the 1950s opened molecular anatomy, and infrared, ultraviolet and computer image analysis carried measurement into structures that cannot be dissected at all.20 世纪 50 年代蛋白质与核酸的 X 射线衍射打开分子解剖学，红外、紫外与计算机图像分析把测量推进到根本无从解剖的结构。

• Computed tomography, turned into a clinical scanner by Hounsfield between 1967 and 1972, and magnetic resonance imaging, proposed by Lauterbur in 1973, made the living body a source of anatomical sections.计算机断层成像由 Hounsfield 在 1967 至 1972 年间做成可用于临床的扫描机，磁共振成像由 Lauterbur 于 1973 年提出，活体由此成为断层图像的来源。

• The Visible Human Project completed its male dataset in November 1994 and its female dataset a year later, sectioning the bodies at 1 mm and 0.33 mm intervals and releasing more than 65 GB of images after a 2000 rescan.可视人计划 1994 年 11 月完成男性数据集，一年后完成女性数据集，两组尸体分别按 1 毫米与 0.33 毫米间隔切片，2000 年重扫后图像总量超过 65 GB。

• Plastination, invented by Gunther von Hagens in 1977 and patented in Germany the next year, replaces water and fat with resin and yields specimens that keep their shape without fluid and can be handled in class.塑化技术由（Gunther von Hagens）1977 年发明、次年在德国取得专利，它用树脂替换水分与脂肪，标本无需保存液即可保持形态并供课堂传看。

History

• The Edwin Smith papyrus, dated to about 1600 BCE, describes the heart and its vessels, the brain with its meninges and cerebrospinal fluid, and the liver, spleen, kidneys, uterus and bladder, and the Ebers papyrus of about 1550 BCE carries a treatise on the heart.成书约在公元前 1600 年的《埃德温·史密斯纸草书》记述了心脏及其血管、脑与脑膜及脑脊液，也记述了肝、脾、肾、子宫与膀胱，约公元前 1550 年的《埃伯斯纸草书》则收有一篇论心脏的文字。

• Hellenistic Alexandria provided the setting for the first systematic human dissections, which Herophilus and Erasistratus carried out in the third century BCE on the bodies of condemned criminals.希腊化时期的亚历山大城提供了最早的系统人体解剖场所，公元前 3 世纪的希罗菲卢斯与埃拉西斯特拉图斯在此解剖被处死的罪犯。^[2]

• Herophilus named the meninges and the ventricles, separated the cerebrum from the cerebellum, traced the optic, oculomotor, facial and hypoglossal nerves, and held that the brain was the seat of intellect rather than a cooling chamber for the heart.希罗菲卢斯为脑膜与脑室命名，区分大脑与小脑，追出视神经、动眼神经与舌下神经的走行，并主张脑是理智所在，而非给心脏降温的腔室。^[3]

• Galen, writing in the second century, assembled the anatomy of his predecessors from animal dissection, mostly of dogs, and his treatises stayed authoritative for a thousand years, reaching Renaissance Europe through Arabic medicine.2 世纪的盖伦靠动物解剖汇集前人知识，取材以犬为主，其著作在此后一千年里保持权威，并经阿拉伯医学传回文艺复兴时期的欧洲。

• Mondino de Luzzi's Anathomia of 1316, written at Bologna, was the first medieval textbook of anatomy and followed the order of his own dissections, from abdomen to thorax, head and limbs.蒙迪诺（Mondino de Luzzi）1316 年在博洛尼亚写成的《解剖学》是中世纪第一部解剖教科书，叙述次序照他自己解剖的顺序，由腹部到胸部、头部与四肢。

• Vesalius, professor at Padua from 1537, published De humani corporis fabrica in 1543 in seven volumes, correcting errors that had survived because Galen had worked from animals, and the woodcuts attributed to Jan van Calcar made the book a turning point.1537 年起任教于帕多瓦的维萨里 1543 年出版七卷本《人体构造》，纠正了盖伦因依赖动物解剖而留下的错误，一般认为由（Jan van Calcar）绘制的木刻插图使这本书成为转折点。

• British anatomy depended on bodies of the executed until grave robbing and the Edinburgh murders of 1828 pushed Parliament to act, and the Anatomy Act of 1832 licensed unclaimed pauper bodies for dissection.英国解剖学长期依靠被处决者的尸体，直到盗尸与 1828 年爱丁堡的伯克、黑尔连环谋杀案迫使议会介入，1832 年《解剖法》才把无人认领的贫民尸体纳入合法来源。^[1]

• John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889, built the three-year preclinical course in which anatomy was taught, a structure that held until the reforms of 1993 and 2003.1863 至 1889 年任阿伯丁大学钦定解剖学教授的斯特拉瑟斯建立了三年临床前课程，解剖学是其中的主干，这一结构一直维持到 1993 年与 2003 年的医学教育改革。^[4]

• From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated anatomy teaching in Britain, medical museums supplied specimens for comparison across species, and Semmelweis in the 1840s traced puerperal fever to students who walked from the dissecting room to the ward.1822 年起英国皇家外科医学院开始监管解剖教学，医学博物馆为跨物种比较提供标本，1840 年代塞麦尔维斯把产褥热追到那些从解剖室直接走进病房的学生身上。

Terminology and standards

• Terminologia Anatomica, published in 1998 by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology under the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists, replaced the sixth edition of Nomina Anatomica and listed 7,635 Latin terms.国际解剖学家协会联合会下属的解剖学术语联邦委员会 1998 年出版《解剖学术语》，取代《解剖学名词》第 6 版，收录 7635 条拉丁术语。^[5][6]

• The second edition, released online by the Federative International Programme on Anatomical Terminology in 2019 and adopted by the IFAA general assembly in 2020, carries 7,112 numbered terms and needed an errata sheet dated August 2021.第二版由解剖学术语国际联邦计划于 2019 年在线发布、2020 年经联合会会员大会通过，编号术语共 7112 条，2021 年 8 月又出了勘误表。

• The committee itself dates from 1989, when it was created at the thirteenth International Congress of Anatomists in Rio de Janeiro, and its sibling volumes cover histology (2008) and embryology.该委员会本身成立于 1989 年里约热内卢第十三届国际解剖学家大会，其姊妹卷分别覆盖组织学（2008）与胚胎学。

• The Foundational Model of Anatomy, developed at the Structural Informatics Group of the University of Washington, holds about 75,000 classes and over 120,000 terms in some 2.1 million relationship instances drawn from 168 relation types.华盛顿大学结构信息学小组开发的解剖学基础模型收录约 7.5 万个类与 12 万余条术语，168 种关系类型共约 210 万条关系实例。

• MeSH indexes the topic under descriptor D000715, Wikidata carries it as Q514, and SNOMED CT and the NCI Thesaurus supply clinical concept identifiers for the same structures.医学主题词表把这一主题编在 D000715，维基数据编号为 Q514，SNOMED CT 与美国国家癌症研究所词表则给同一批结构配上临床概念标识。

• TA deliberately drops eponyms, on the argument that a name such as fallopian tube or aqueduct of Sylvius carries no anatomical information and varies from country to country.《解剖学术语》有意不用人名化旧称，理由是法洛皮奥管（fallopian tube）与西尔维乌斯水管（aqueduct of Sylvius）这类名字既不携带解剖信息，又随国别与文化而变。^[7]

Teaching and professional practice

• A 2010 survey of 1,250 clinicians across 38 specialties, with a 42.9 per cent response rate, ranked gross anatomy the most relevant basic science for surgical specialists and rated it basic for physical examination, symptom interpretation and reading images.2010 年一项调查覆盖 38 个专科，发出 1250 份问卷，回收率 42.9%，结果显示外科专科医师把大体解剖学列为最相关的基础学科，并认为它是体格检查、症状判读与影像阅读的基础。^[8]

• Teaching still runs on cadavers and prosections, with plastinated specimens and digital tables now letting a body be peeled away layer by layer without a laboratory.教学仍以尸体与预解剖标本为主，塑化标本与数字解剖台的出现使逐层剥离可以在没有解剖实验室的条件下完成。

• Body supply rests on consent law rather than on the 1832 Act, in England and Wales through the Anatomy Act 1984 and then the Human Tissue Act 2004, which followed the retention scandal at Alder Hey in 1999.尸体来源如今由知情同意的法律管辖，1832 年的旧法早已退出，英格兰与威尔士先经 1984 年《解剖法》，后由 2004 年《人体组织法》接管，后者与 1999 年奥尔德海伊医院器官留存事件直接相关。

• Public anatomy arrived with plastination exhibitions, beginning with Body Worlds in Tokyo in 1995, which has since drawn more than 50 million visitors and been hosted by over 50 museums and venues in North America, Europe and Asia.塑化展把解剖学带到公众面前，1995 年东京的首届「人体世界」展之后，这类展览累计观众超过 5000 万人次，在北美、欧洲与亚洲的 50 多个博物馆与场馆巡展。

• Voluntary body donation programmes, which spread from the second half of the twentieth century, now supply most teaching material in countries that have replaced pauper and unclaimed bodies with documented consent.自愿遗体捐献计划自 20 世纪后半叶推广，在已用书面同意取代贫民与无人认领尸体的国家，教学材料主要来自这一渠道。^[1]

Debates and criticism

• Terminology remains unsettled. A review published seventeen years after the first edition of TA catalogued inconsistencies and errors and proposed replacements, and the second edition has itself needed an errata sheet.术语至今没有定论，第一版《解剖学术语》问世 17 年后的一篇综述列出其中的不一致与错误并提出替换方案，第二版本身也需勘误。^[6]

• Adoption lags the standard. In a 2014 survey of the American Association of Clinical Anatomists, the TA preferred term ranked first in usage for only 53 per cent of the 25 terms tested, first or second for 92 per cent, and 75 per cent of respondents had not heard of FIPAT or TA.标准的采用落后于标准本身，2014 年对美国临床解剖学家协会成员的一项调查中，受测的 25 条术语里只有 53% 以《解剖学术语》的首选名为最常用名，92% 的首选名居于第一或第二，而 75% 的受访者没听说过该计划与本标准。^[9]

• Eponyms persist where TA would drop them. Of eight gynaecological eponyms studied in 2023, the TA term was preferred in two, three showed a trend towards adoption and three looked likely to stay in clinical use.人名化旧称在该被取代的地方继续通行，2023 年对 8 个妇科解剖旧称的研究中，2 个已以标准术语为首选，3 个呈采用趋势，另 3 个看来仍会留在临床用语里。^[10]

• Curriculum time has been compressed, and McLachlan and Patten argued in 2006 that the debate over cadavers, prosection and the use of living anatomy and radiology in place of dissection was the central unresolved question in teaching.课程时数被压缩，麦克拉克伦与帕滕 2006 年指出，尸体、预解剖与传统解剖之争，以及用活体解剖学与影像替代解剖的争论，仍是教学中最核心的未决问题。^[11]

• The ethics of bodies and images runs through the field, from the pauper corpses licensed in 1832 to the consent regimes of today and to commercial plastination exhibitions where the question is who may be shown and who profits.尸体与图像的伦理贯穿这门学科，从 1832 年被合法征用的贫民尸体，到今天以同意为前提的制度，再到商业塑化展上「谁的身体可以被展示、谁从中获利」的追问。

Related entries

• The standard reference work is Gray's Anatomy, first published in 1858 and now in a 42nd edition of 1,606 pages, with Moore's Clinically Oriented Anatomy serving clinical correlation.标准工具书是 1858 年初版的《格雷氏解剖学》，现行第 42 版共 1606 页，临床对应内容常查《莫尔临床导向解剖学》。^[12]

• Neighbouring entries are human anatomy, gross anatomy, histology, embryology, neuroanatomy, comparative anatomy, plant anatomy and anatomical terminology, together with the standards TA, FMA and UBERON.相邻条目有人体解剖学、大体解剖学、组织学、胚胎学、神经解剖学、比较解剖学、植物解剖学与解剖学术语，以及 TA、FMA 与 UBERON 三个标准。

• This entry rewrites material from the English and Chinese Wikipedia articles on anatomy, which are available under CC BY-SA 4.0.本条目部分内容改写自英文与中文维基百科的「Anatomy」与「解剖学」条目，原文依 CC BY-SA 4.0 协议提供。